The Role of Virtual Experiences in Increasing Knowledge, Motivation, Independence and Cultural Capital from Disadvantaged Pupils in England


 
 Objective: To investigate the impact of virtual learning experiences (VLEs) in school amongst disadvantaged 9 to 11-year-olds: specifically, do virtual experiences increase their knowledge, motivation and independence in learning about a topic, and does this increase their cultural capital.
 
 Methodology: Participants explored virtual experiences on countries around the world, with the number of facts learnt before and after recorded. Questionnaires were also completed to record views of virtual experiences.
 
 Findings: Findings suggest virtual experiences were successful in teaching participants new information, and increased their independence and motivation to engage with learning, and thus could be successful in increasing cultural capital. Significance difference testing revealed that disadvantaged pupils recorded fewer facts than non-disadvantaged pupils, and therefore virtual experiences were not sufficient to close this disadvantage gap.
 
 Value Added: The value of virtual experiences being woven into curriculums is discussed as a platform for teaching cultural knowledge. Recommendations: Virtual learning experiences should be considered a core resource for teachers when planning and should be embedded into the curriculum to enhance learning experiences for disadvantaged pupils. Further research should continue to explore the use of VLEs in Primary schools, and the impact of VLEs on cultural capital.


Methodology:
Par�cipants explored virtual experiences on countries around the world, with the number of facts learnt before and a�er recorded. Ques�onnaires were also completed to record views of virtual experiences.
Findings: Findings suggest virtual experiences were successful in teaching par�cipants new informa�on, and increased their independence and mo�va�on to engage with learning, and thus could be successful in increasing cultural capital. Significance difference tes�ng revealed that disadvantaged pupils recorded fewer facts than non-disadvantaged pupils, and therefore virtual experiences were not sufficient to close this disadvantage gap.
Value Added: The value of virtual experiences being woven into curriculums is discussed as a pla�orm for teaching cultural knowledge.
Recommenda�ons: Virtual learning experiences should be considered a core resource for teachers when planning and should be embedded into the curriculum to enhance learning experiences for disadvantaged pupils. Further research should con�nue to explore the use of VLEs in Primary schools, and the impact of VLEs on cultural capital.

Introduc�on
Within England, educa�onal disadvantage is of high prevalence, such that disadvantaged children (defined as pupil premium pupils who receive free school meals from the Government due to a low household family income (Gov, 2020)) are significantly behind their more affluent peers. It is believed that pupil premium pupils are academically 18 months behind their peers when they take their GCSEs (exams taken at 16 years old, results of which are likely to influence future prospects). Furthermore, with less than half of disadvantaged pupils mee�ng their age-related expecta�ons by the �me they are 11 years old, they are also three-�mes more likely to be excluded from school (Teach First, 2020).
Teach First, a charity which aims to train teachers and leaders to challenge this disadvantage, places teachers in England's most deprived areas to work to address this disadvantage gap: I am a Teach First ambassador, comple�ng my teaching training through the charity and working in two of England's most deprived coastal areas.
Middle leaders, those who work under senior leadership and support in the delivery of whole school visions, in English primary schools (schools educa�ng pupils between 4 and 11 years old) have been recognised as being one of the most influen�al individuals in making a difference in schools (Hammersley-Fletcher & Strain, 2011), working as the middle communicator between the senior leadership (headship team), and the teaching and support staff. Within 2020, I was a middle leader of upper key stage two (9 to 11-year-olds), leading the teaching team of six classes and wri�ng a thesis on Educa�onal Leadership (Gillard, 2020), when schools closed due to the COVID-19 global pandemic. This thesis took full advantage of opportuni�es opened by the closures, which forced pupils to engage with remote learning and ensured that pupils had to engage in their educa�on online. During the online learning, I presented pupils with virtual experiences -experiences they are unlikely to otherwise encounter (exploring other countries virtually, for example) -in the space of their own homes. Since the �me of wri�ng, I remain working in a heavily disadvantaged coastal school, now as a member of the senior leadership team. This ar�cle therefore focuses on what can be learnt from such a period, discussing the extent to which educators and disadvantaged pupils would benefit from including virtual experiences in their curriculums, specifically as a pla�orm for increasing cultural knowledge, mo�va�on and independence in learning, alongside the benefit of transforma�ve leadership in reducing the disadvantage gap for pupils.

Cri�cal Literature Review
The following literature review summarises academic research across both leadership in schools and cultural capital, deriving an ini�a�ve for change that u�lises technologies and virtual experiences to posi�vely impact disadvantaged pupils.

Leadership in schools
Transforma�ve leadership (Shields, 2010) is a leadership style specifically proposed for educa�onal se�ngs that is reflec�ve of the wider social and moral environments within a school's educa�on system. It is re-flec�ve of educa�on being not only academic success, but also the ability to par�cipate in society (Shields, 2009), and therefore school leadership should account for the social, cultural and academic needs of the pupils. Transforma�ve leaders find themselves facing a challenge in the tension and inequality amongst pupils in their care, and should work to release every child's poten�al, recognising the benefit on society that each pupil could have. Case studies of schools that had adopted a transforma�ve leadership structure, culture and pedagogy found that the experience of school life increased for pupils, alongside their test scores.
Transforma�ve leadership theory is therefore, given the educa�onal disadvantage in England, one that clearly recognises the challenge that leaders in areas of educa�onal disadvantage face, and given the personal context at the �me of this research project and at present, is also the leadership style I resonate most closely with. If school leaders cannot show passion and outrage at the predisposed life chances of those who come from a low-income family, how can schools ever address the disadvantage gap that is evident in everything from the contents of a pupil's pack lunches to their academic success?
It is not a theory without its limita�ons, however. The theory is s�ll clearly in its youth when compared to the more tradi�onal transforma-�onal leadership (Robbins & Coulter, 2007) and transac�onal leadership (Odumeru & Ogbonna, 2013) approaches, both of which are discussed at length in my previous thesis (Gillard, 2020), and have been recognised as being effec�ve within the educa�onal literature (e.g. Bogler, 2001). However, in a chapter that is wri�en to analyse strategies at reducing such a gap, a transforma�ve leadership approach is considered the most appropriate for schools which have an inbuilt understanding of such disadvantage, and with leaders who are willing to challenge the predisposed outcomes.

Cultural Capital
What is it?
'Cultural capital' was first used to define how power in society was transferred and social class was maintained (Cultural Learning Alliance, 2019), with different sources of cultural capital iden�fied over �me. Bourdieu (1984) defined objec�ve, embodied and ins�tu�onalised forms of cultural capital. Objec�ve refers to what your own or have witnessed: cultural goods, exposure to literature and works of art. Embodied cultural capital is your development of language, your mannerisms and the quality of your preferences and hobbies, whilst ins�tu�onalised cultural capital refers to your qualifica�ons and educa�on creden�als. These forms of cultural capital have con�nued to evolve over �me, with technical cultural capital also of relevance to a 21 st century society, referring to marketable skills such as your use of computers (Benne� et al., 2009). Ofsted, the inspec�on service for the quality of educa�on provided in schools (h�ps://www.gov.uk/government/organisa�ons/ofsted/about), released its most recent school inspec�on framework (guidance as to what schools should be providing for their pupils) and for the first �me, it referenced the importance of providing children with cultural capital: an ambi�ous curriculum should be constructed such that it is "designed to give all learners, par�cularly those most disadvantaged… the knowledge and cultural capital they need to succeed in life," (Ofsted, 2019, p. 9). They do not provide a clear defini�on with regard to what its ex-pecta�ons are for this provision, however I would argue that the needs of the pupils in every school are dis�nctly different and therefore it is in-ten�onal to give educators the power to implement the teaching of cultural capital that is most beneficial to its own pupils. The needs of cultural knowledge are likely to significantly vary between pupils a�ending an interna�onal school, to those with high propor�ons of free school meals pupils, for example. The following defini�on of a pupil with cultural capital, is outlined in an ar�cle by the Cultural Learning Alliance (2019), and is therefore the defini�on that will be used going forwards in this research project: Someone with good cultural capital is an individual who is knowledgeable about a wide range of culture and is comfortable discussing its value and merits. It is someone who through being given a vast array of experience and access to skill development, will be able to independently deploy knowledge in a range of given situa�ons.
From this defini�on, it is important to extract key skills that are needed for an individual to achieve a 'good' cultural capital. This defini�on highlights the importance of knowledge, and how an individual must have access to a range of informa�on about a wide range of culture to independently discuss it across contexts. In order to gain and retain such knowledge, an individual must also be mo�vated to learn in the first place. The links between mo�va�on, the learning of knowledge and the value of independence are evident across the academic literature, with a higher mo�va�on res-ul�ng in a higher engagement with learning (Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2002), and independence being key for deep learning to occur (Kyndt, Raes, Dochy, & Janssens, 2013). Therefore, the role of virtual experiences on independence, mo�va�on and knowledge will be fundamental in measuring such a mul�-faceted concept of cultural capital. Bourdieu (1984) concluded that the greater cultural capital you have, the more powerful you are within society. Further educa-�onal research has iden�fied the role of parental support and its impact on cultural capital. Specifically, middle and upper-class parents are more likely to invest in their child's educa�on, both directly and indirectly (Montacute & Cullinane, 2018). They are both more likely to invest in extracurricular ac�vi�es and school trips, whilst also having and providing the knowledge and networks to support their children to make informed decisions in school applic-a�ons, university and career op�ons, to take ac�ons to maximise acceptance chances and have the confidence and ability to support home learning. The Class Ceiling Project (Laurison, Miles, & Friedman, 2015) has revealed that professionals from affluent backgrounds earn, on average, £6,800 more than colleagues in the same role with working class backgrounds. In other words, even those disadvantaged pupils who are successful at bea�ng their predicted trajectories and gain professional roles, remain at an economic disadvantage rela�ve to their more affluent peers.

Its Impact
Furthermore, Hirsch, Kelt and Trefill (1988) defined cultural literacy as reading comprehension requiring both decoding and a wide background knowledge -an idea that has con�nued to be developed with schema theory. In other words, the more you know, the greater working memory available to process a text and new informa�on (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983). Those deprived of cultural capital have less of such knowledge to pass onto their offspring and hence, the issue is circular (Cultural Learning Alliance, 2019). Those more privileged children turn their objec�ve and embodied cultural capital to ins�tu�onalised: acquiring creden�als and educa�on and thus, are more likely to obtain advantaged careers in our society. Therefore, it is key, as educators and trans-forma�ve school leaders we are teaching children to have the knowledge and experiences that enable them to classify as having a high cultural capital and can func�on as well-informed individuals when they leave school (Riches, 2020).

Cultural capital in virtual learning
The use of virtual learning to support educa�on has been limited, both developing in line with 21 st Century technologies and with the evolving demands of the Bri�sh curriculum. Virtual learning environments (VLES) have been the most frequently used virtual pla�orms, defined as learner-centred pla�orms facilita�ng the offering of ac�ve learning opportuni�es, including specific tutor guidance and group work by the tutor and learners (S�les, 2000). It is predominantly used across Western cultures as a pla�orm for school management (administra�ve tasks, such as the register or grading).
Virtual experiences have been scarcely examined in the educa-�on literature previously. Virtual worlds have been created for archaeological research (Sanders, 2014) and visual story telling (Danilicheva et al., 2009). Virtual tours have been used to develop spa�al skills (Kurtuluş, 2013) and in teaching physical geography (Kingston et al., 2012). Raskind, Smedley and Higgins (2005) analyse the impact of virtual trips in schools specifically, recognising that accessing experiences virtually helps to build and shape a learning experience where a trip would not be possible, such as to the Amazon rainforest or inside an ac�ve volcano. Whilst educa-�onal trips are acknowledged as having a substan�al impact on learning, connec�ng learning to real world experiences, that otherwise may not be encountered, is key and o�en lacking (Tuthill & Klemm, 2002). Stainfield et al. (2000) outline that, despite the advantages, many teachers fail to take their children on excursions for a range of reasons, including a lack of funds. Hence, schools with limited funds and high levels of depriva�on encounter fewer school trips than others in more privileged situa�ons. Therefore, virtual trips, tours and experiences could provide a subs�tute where real visits are not possible, whether it be due to lack of funding or loca�onal restric�ons.
Following na�onal lockdowns of schools and tourist a�rac�ons, cultural experiences became virtually available: businesses worldwide made their landmarks, museums, zoos and aquariums available over the internet, to enable individuals worldwide to engage online whilst they were physically closed. This gave the opportunity for children to access worldwide experiences virtually, such as tours of the Louvre and a virtual walk of the Great Wall of China, and thus the opportunity for them to experience a wide range of new cultural experiences from their own homes. Should these virtual experiences be beneficial in a �me where trips are not physically possible, schools could overcome their barriers for physical trips by using virtual experiences to provide children with a subs�tute for the physical experiences and culture gained by their more privileged peers. However, the ques�on is would these virtual experiences be sufficient to increase the cultural knowledge of disadvantaged pupils, and increase their mo�va�on and independence in learning such knowledge?
As a result, this chapter explores the answers to the following two ques�ons: 1. Can virtual experiences contribute to the mo�va�on, independence, knowledge and cultural capital of 9 to 11-yearold pupils? 2. Should virtual experiences be used as a pla�orm to reduce the disadvantage gap in cultural capital?

Methodology Design
As the author of the research is the teacher and leader of the pupils, this research follows an ac�on research design frame. With this comes an awareness of the bias that is imparted on the research from my involvement with the par�cipants (Mertler, 2009) and thus, tenta�ve conclusions will be drawn. Ethical clearance was sought and gained for this project, and adhered to throughout.

Par�cipants
The par�cipants were a convenience sample of those who engaged with the online learning, shown in Table 1. All children were between 9 and 11 years of age.

Data Collec�on
The original research (Gillard, 2020) conducted researched collec-�on over a four-week period, with different topics of virtual experiences each week. For this ar�cle, one of these weeks -virtual experiences of countries around the world -is commented on and analysed. Addi�onally, overall trends across the four-week period of data collec�on are discussed to allow discussion around engagement, mo�va�on and independence over �me. Two methods of data collec�on were used to measure the responses for virtual learning, using a mixed-methods approach. To measure a quan�ta�ve account of 'knowledge', par�cipants recorded the facts rela�ng to 'countries around the world' before and a�er they had engaged with the virtual experiences. Following this, a ques�onnaire was given to the par�cipants to measure enjoyment, independence and mo�va�on for using the virtual experiences, and using them again in the future. It also asked par�cipants whether they have visited another country before, as this would allow a comparison of physical and virtual experiences.

Pre-topic Knowledge
Ini�ally, children were asked to complete a mind map where they recorded all the informa�on they already know about different countries around the world. It was made clear this was a pre-knowledge task, and par�cipants were instructed not to complete any research before comple�ng it.

Virtual Experiences
Upon comple�on of the pre-knowledge mind map, a series of virtual experiences were shared for different countries, including virtual tours of the Louvre, the Great Wall of China, and the Egyp�an pyramids. Par�cipants were encouraged to explore a range of these links across a three-day period. Within the instruc�ons, par-�cipants were reminded this was a three-day task, and they should spend an appropriate amount of �me exploring. No prompts or ques�ons were provided.

Post-topic Knowledge
Following this three-day emersion in experiences, children will be asked to record all the new informa�on they have learnt on the post-knowledge mind map, giving them the freedom to present and record informa�on how they wish. On comple�on of this mind map, par�cipants will be asked to complete a ques�onnaire on their views of the virtual learning they had just completed.

Leadership
With regard to the leadership elements of implan�ng these virtual experiences for the pupils, weekly virtual mee�ngs were held with my phase team to discuss the elements of Google classroom that were successful or posing challenges for the teachers. Furthermore, despite not leading elements of online learning or experiences, these mee�ngs also included support staff to involve them in the process and ensure they are fully aware of the experiences that our pupils are receiving whilst at home. In addi�on to the above, following my own personal reflec�ons and those shared by my team, I also reported weekly to the senior leadership to inform them of the progress and engagement, as well as any concerns with online learning.

Data Analysis 'Knowledge' mind map analysis
In order to compare the 'knowledge gained' through virtual experiences, the number of facts recorded by par�cipants was compared at the pre-knowledge (before the virtual experience) and the post-knowledge (a�er the virtual experience) stage of the topic. Using SPSS (a computer programme which conducts sta�s�cal analysis), inferen�al sta�s�cs were conducted to assess whether the knowledge gained upholds against significant tes�ng, where p < .05. A comparison of means was conducted against sta�s�cal significance in order to compare facts for disadvantaged (pupil premium) and non-disadvantaged (non-pupil premium) pupils.

Ques�onnaire analysis
Quan�ta�ve responses were compared through descrip�ve sta�s�cs to iden�fy trends and pa�erns within the data. Qualit-a�ve responses were coded using a constant compara�ve method, using a coding frame derived from the par�cipant's responses, with descrip�ve sta�s�cs used to analyse the coded responses.

Leadership
A reflexive analysis was conducted on my experiences as a leader within the ac�on-research project, and as a teacher and leader within the school, discussing alignment with leadership styles, successes, and challenges throughout.

Fieldwork and Findings
Knowledge Gained from countries around the world -Mind Map Analysis The mean number of countries around the world facts recorded by par�cipants in the three stages of knowledge throughout this phase can be seen in Table 2, comparing all pupils, pupil premium and non-pupil premium par�cipants. A paired samples t-test was conducted, and revealed there was a significant difference in the pre-and post-knowledge countries around the world facts recorded, such that par�cipants recorded significantly more facts following the virtual experience, paired t(67) =-6.18, p <0.5. This was true for both pupil premium, paired t(40) =-5.47, p <0.5, and nonpupil premium children, paired t(26) =-4.12, p <0.5. Pupil premium children have recorded fewer countries around the world facts than non-pupil premium children, however a oneway ANOVA revealed pupil premium children recorded significantly fewer facts than non-pupil premium children only at the postknowledge stage F(1,66) = 4.06, p <.05, seen in Figure 1.

Ques�onnaire analysis
Ques�onnaire data was analysed by topic, with comparisons conducted for both pupil premium status and gender. Each is revealed under the subheadings below.

Knowledge Gained
97.1% of par�cipants reported they had learnt something new a�er exploring the virtual experience of countries around the world, as shown in Table 3. Table 3. Frequency (percentage in parenthesis) of par�cipants who reported they had learnt something new following virtual experiences of countries around the world Source: research by author. Figure 2 reveals the number of par�cipants who had visited another country before, split into pupil premium and non-pupil premium par�cipants, such that half (51.5%) of the sample had visited another country before: 41.5% of pupil premium have not travelled abroad, compared to 59.3% of non-pupil premium children.

Enjoyment and mo�va�on
Par�cipants were given a scale of 1 to 5 to rank their enjoyment of the virtual learning experience; results can be seen in Figure 3a, with 69.2% of par�cipants repor�ng they liked or loved the experience, a decline on reports from the first two experiences. Following this, par�cipants were given the opportunity to explain why they felt this way, from which answers were coded. The most common reason for enjoying the virtual learning, like with the first week, was mo�va�onal reasons, such as it being interes�ng or fun to use, seen in Figure 3b. Each is split to compare responses for pupil premium and non-pupil premium children.

Future Use
Finally, par�cipants were asked whether they would like to use this virtual learning in the future, 88.9% of who stated they would, seen in Table 4. Reasons for this preference can be seen in Figure 4, with the most highly ranked reason being to increase knowledge and for mo�va�onal reasons, as with the previous topics reasoning.  Note, the other three weeks of data collec�on follow very similar data pa�erns and trends, seen in Gillard (2020).

Data Trends Across Research
Trends across the four-week data collec�on have been analysed within this sec�on, looking at overall enjoyment, mo�va�on, independence, and knowledge.

Engagement Over Time
There was a slight decrease in par�cipant numbers across the four weeks, seen in Table 5. In addi�on to this, Figure 5 illustrates the downward trend of total facts recorded throughout the research, such that the total number of facts recorded by par�cipants decreased across the four weeks, a total difference of 379 facts.

Enjoyment and Mo�va�on Over Time
In each ques�onnaire, par�cipants were given the opportunity to qualita�vely express the reasons they had enjoyed the virtual experience. These responses were then coded into reason categories, which has been tracked across each topic as shown in Figure 6. Whilst there are fluctua�ons across topics for most categorised reasons, mo�va�onal reasons have remained high across all topics. Ad-di�onally, there is a clear upward trend of the number of instances knowledge was given as a reason for enjoying the virtual learning, which included references to learning, facts and informa�on. In a similar trend, the reasons for par�cipants wan�ng to use these virtual experiences in the classroom is shown in Figure 7, with mo-�va�onal incen�ves remaining high, and knowledge-based reasons increasing across the four topics.

Independence
Within the ques�onnaires, par�cipants rated, on a scale of 1 to 5, how much adult support they had throughout the virtual learning, where one was completely independent and 5 was completely adult-supported. This is plo�ed by topic and therefore across �me in Figure 8. As illustrated, the number of par�cipants ra�ng themselves as independent is on an upward trend across each week of virtual learning, whilst the number of par�cipants repor�ng adult support is following a downward trend across �me, within each topic.

Fieldwork discussion
Analysis of the facts recorded before and a�er the virtual experiences revealed that par�cipants knew significantly more facts following the virtual experience than before. This would suggest that the virtual experiences have been successful in increasing par�cipant knowledge for countries around the world, and thus suggests it has been successful in increasing this sample's objec�ve cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1984). Suppor�ng this, across each of selves as having learnt something new, with 100% of par�cipants repor�ng this in half of the topics. Furthermore, when asked why they were enjoying the virtual learning experience, the number of responses that stated gaining knowledge as a reason for enjoying it increased across each topic, sugges�ng that par�cipants were also aware of their knowledge gain through the experiences, and saw this as an incen�ve to con�nue. Schema theory (Bartle�, 1932) refers to knowledge as a web, such that the more prior knowledge you have about a topic, the greater vocabulary and understanding you have beforehand, the more successfully you will learn new informa�on, building connec-�ons and links across the new and old material. Specifically in edu-ca�on, cogni�ve load theory (Sweller, 1988) suggests the greater your ini�al understanding and knowledge of a concept, your working memory is then more readily available to absorb new informa-�on that is presented. This then results in the Ma�hew Effect: those who know more informa�on ini�ally can gain more informa-�on throughout new learning (Stanovich, 2009;Duff, Tomblin, & Ca�s, 2015), as seen in cultural literacy -with a greater background knowledge, the more working memory available to process the new informa�on (Carrell & Esiterhold, 1983). The Ma�hew Effect is represented here, such that pupil premium children consistently record fewer facts than non-pupil premium children both pre-and post-virtual experience. When virtual experiences are given to pupil premium pupils, it would appear the disadvantage gap remains, as non-pupil premium children gain more facts than pupil premium children.
Pupil premium children recorded significantly fewer facts a�er the virtual experience than non-pupil premium children, and as a result, had less overall knowledge regarding countries around the world than their more privileged peers. Here, it would seem evident that knowing less originally, with almost 60% of pupil premium children having not visited another country before, has resulted in limi�ng the overall knowledge that can be gained for the virtual learning experience of countries around the world.
Whilst the mind maps were a successful tool in allowing pupils to record their facts throughout the virtual experiences, there are obvious limita�ons. Firstly, I have referred to children's knowledge around each topic as quan�fied by the number of facts they have recorded at each stage. Whilst this has been beneficial given the circumstances of COVID-19 and home learning being the only tool as a way to quan�fy learnt knowledge, knowledge itself is a complex, mul�faceted phenomenon that cannot be defined by the number of facts a child records. With so many external influences, such as adult support or the use of addi�onal resources to help, alongside the recording of facts not necessarily demonstra�ng whether a child has a full understanding of the concepts they are recording, it is unlikely volume of facts recorded is a very valid tool for measuring knowledge. However, it has provided a quan�ta�ve indicator of what a child knows, and could suggest some tenta�ve conclusions that virtual learning experiences may be a pla�orm to increase a child's knowledge and experiences of a topic, and in turn, their cultural capital.
In addi�on to the analysis of the number of facts recorded, ques�onnaires provided an insight into par�cipant enjoyment, mo�va�on and independence when comple�ng the work. Enjoyment levels were high for the countries around the world experiences, with 69.2% sta�ng they loved or liked the virtual experiences. Furthermore, 88.9% of par�cipants said they would like to use the virtual experiences again in the classroom in the future, with mo�va�on being the most frequently stated reason for wan�ng to do so, in line with previous research (Kolias et al., 2005). Mo�va�on has an evidenced rela�onship with learning, such that the more mo�vated you are, the more engaged you are (Singh, Granville, & Dika, 2013). Moreover, reasons for not enjoying the virtual experiences or for not wan�ng to use the experiences in the future were predominately due to technology issues or due to concerns that they were currently not in school. Should such virtual experiences be worked into an in-school curriculum, with teacher support for both technology issues and queries that arise, comments such as "I like it when a teacher shows you how to do it," and "it's be�er when your teacher talks to you about it in the lesson" would no longer be a concern. As outlined in previous research (Keller, 2006;Babić, 2012), the success of VLEs is dependent on access to computers and the internet, as well as internet speed and technical support at home, disadvantaging those already disadvantaged even further through the digital divide (Cooper & Stewart, 2017), thus it is unsurprising technical issues have been raised. Kolias et al. (2005) reported that VLEs give pupils greater learning responsibility, and thus promote the independence of learners. This is replicated in this research, such that learner self-ranking of their independence increased across the four topics. This again is promising for the promo�on of cultural capital in this sample of learners, with cultural capital defined as being able to independently apply the cultural knowledge across concepts and topics. Thus, the increase in independence across �me and decrease in adult support is promising. However, in line with independence increasing, engagement with the virtual experiences decreased over �me, such that par�cipant numbers declined each week, and the overall number of facts recorded in total for each topic decreased across topics. It is well recognised in educa�on that mo�va�on and engagement for topics, tasks and concepts can decrease over �me, with teachers working hard to tailor learning to children's interests and to keep their engagement and interest in their learning (Blumenfeld, Kempler, & Krajcik, 2006). Across these four weeks however, each task was repe��ve, with the excep�on of the virtual learning links which varied in line with each topic. Thus, it is not surprising that engagement for the learning dipped across the project. It should not go unno�ced however, that the increase of independence over �me resulted in a decrease in adult support over �me. It could therefore be the case that engagement decreased with the learning, and the number of facts recorded decreased as par�cipants were le� to be independent with the learning, and thus, an adult was not checking their work or encouraging par�cipants to do more. The Montacute and Cullinane (2008) research outlines that parental support at home has a substan�al impact on a child's cultural capital, with Babić (2012) recognising that virtual learning is unsuccessful without access to technical support at home. Thus, without high levels of parental engagement consistently to help their children with technological support, it is unlikely the virtual experiences will have their greatest impact.

Reflexive Analysis: Leadership
It is argued that reflexivity is central to ac�on research, as it requires the conscious awareness that the researcher has been involved with every stage of the research and has a rela�onship with the par�cipants (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011). It has been clear to me whilst being a leader throughout a period of �me where disadvantaged pupils were found to be, yet again, behind their more affluent peers due to the digital divide, that I clearly resonate most with the transforma�onal leadership style (Shields, 2010). I found myself facing a huge challenge of the inequality for disadvantaged pupils, heightened in na�onal school closures and their lack of access to technology outlined in the digital divide, and schools were at risk of le�ng down their most vulnerable pupils in a �me of their greatest needs (Cooper & Stewart, 2017). This project, as outlined by Sheilds (2010), became a task of challenging the inappropriate privilege that occurred within the global pandemic, whilst viewing it as an opportunity to see how technology can be u�lised moving forwards in order to support disadvantaged pupils in closing the disadvantage gap. Giving children the opportunity to experience topics and not assuming they have had the experience would appear to benefit children in this sample. Thus, as suggested by Raskind, Smedley & Higgins (2005), virtual school trips to places impossible to visit, like an ac�ve volcano or the amazon rainforest, is beneficial, but within this sample of significant depriva�on and low levels of previous experiences, localised cultural capital should not be assumed and virtual learning experiences should be embedded wherever possible. The success of over 60% of pupils engaging with these virtual learning experiences with such high mo�va�on and independence, and thus likely increased cultural capital, resulted in conversa�ons within this school context to weave virtual experiences throughout the school curriculum, in addi�on to the physical experiences of school trips, moving forwards. Thus, on reflec�on of this ac�on research project, the frustra�on and challenge experienced in a transforma�ve leadership style has resulted in a school-wide change of experiences for all pupils, aiding those disadvantaged the most.

Conclusion
This ac�on research project set out to answer the following two research ques�ons: 1. Can virtual experiences contribute to the mo�va�on, independence, knowledge and cultural capital of 9 to 11-yearold pupils? It would appear that, for this sample of pupils in a primary school on the East coast, virtual experiences have contributed to the gain of knowledge (defined as the number of facts learnt), the independence and mo�va�on of pupils, and therefore increased the cultural capital of par�cipants, following the defini�on defined in this chapter.
2. Should virtual experiences be used as a pla�orm to reduce the disadvantage gap in cultural capital? Whilst there has been a likely gain in knowledge in the number of facts recorded following virtual learning experiences for all pupils, the disadvantage gap very much remains. The pupil premium children recorded significantly fewer facts than non-pupil premium children, at every stage of the learning. Thus, virtual experiences alone are not enough to remove the gap, however, it would certainly appear they have done no harm, as a gain in knowledge following the experience is only beneficial.
The conclusions outlined to each ques�on above are incredibly tenta�ve, with them applying only to the context and par�cipants outlined within this study. The concepts studied within this project are complex and cannot be measured simply in ways that this research has a�empted to, with the number of facts nor through uncontrolled self-responses to ques�onnaires, and thus, generalisability and validity of the concepts discussed is limited beyond the context of this study. What this research has done however, is highlight that virtual experiences could be beneficial in line with and beyond previous research, and they should be considered regularly within primary teacher's planning, not just when a school trip is not possible (Raskind, Smedley, & Higgins, 2005).
Further research should con�nue to explore the value of virtual experiences beyond a school closures context too, where support and engagement can be measured and controlled within the classroom rather than at home. VLEs have previously been researched most predominantly in secondary schools, however the closures saw the need for pupils of all ages to access online learning and such opportuni�es would allow for schools to be prepared for any situa�ons in the future. It has highlighted to schools the value of teaching a compu�ng curriculum, ensuring that children are fluid in the use of technology across contexts. Moreover, virtual experiences' impact on cultural capital should be explored further, perhaps with a wider defini�on and measurement of cultural capital beyond the quan�ty of facts recorded, as it is clear from the mul�-faceted defini�ons that this is an oversimplified measurement.
With regard to leadership, a reflexive approach has made it clear that transforma�ve leadership is the one I personally align to. Working in schools with high levels of disadvantage, I find myself frustrated and personally mo�vated to challenge the inequality posed to pupil premium pupils within our educa�on system. Given the localised success of the project, with virtual experiences being embedded across the school curriculum, it would appear that this leadership approach has been beneficial within this context, as the inequality of the pupils has been the mo�va�on behind each ac-�on. It is only by feeling a sense of injus�ce towards those limited by their social contexts, that we as educators will be successful in working towards a shared experience for all pupils, over a range of pla�orms -including virtual -and thus, in challenging the disadvantage gap so evident within England's educa�on system. Teach First (2020). The issue. Teach First. Retrieved from h�ps://www.teachfirst.org.uk/inequality-educa�on. Access: 03.03.2020. Klemm, E. B. (2002). Virtual field trips: Alterna�ves to actual field trips. Interna�onal Journal of Instruc�onal Media, 29(4), 453-468.