The Information Society in Europe: Policies to Stem the Digital Divide

Abstract A Digital Agenda for Europe is one of the seven flagship initiatives of the Europe 2020 Strategy. The main objective of this initiative consists of promoting ICT, especially the Internet, as a strategic tool to improve business, healthcare services, transport and social activity in a better global standard-of-living context. The Europe 2020 Strategy recommends broadband access for all European citizens by 2013 and higher Internet speeds (30 Mbps or above) by 2020. Nevertheless, what is the real position in the European regional and urban context? This article attempts to describe and explain the current situation and trends in relation to the Europe 2020 Strategy initiative.


Introduction
Europe 2020 (EU2020S) is the growth strategy of the European Union to overcome the current crisis.This strategy is driven towards a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy in Europe.These three priorities should help the European Union to reach high levels of employment, productivity and social cohesion by 2020.Con-cretely, the EU2020S has defined eight targets on employment, R&D, climate change and energy, education and poverty, and social inclusion. -Employment • 75% of the 20-64-year-olds to be employed -R&D • 3% of the EU's GDP to be invested in R&D -Climate change and energy • Greenhouse gas emissions 20% (or even 30%, if the conditions are right) lower than in 1990 • 20% of energy from renewable sources • 20% increase in energy efficiency -Education • Reducing school drop-out rates to below 10% • At least 40% of 30-34-year-olds completing third-level education -Poverty and social exclusion • At least 20 million fewer people in, or at risk of, poverty and social exclusion.Those are all targets included in the EU2020S through seven flagship initiatives which are presented below.One of these flagships refers to the Digital Agenda for Europe, which proposes the creation of a single digital market based on fast Internet access and advanced services.This paper attempts to explain the current situation in Europe at a regional scale (NUTS2 and NUTS3) regarding the information society and ends with a set of conclusions and policy recommendations.

The information society
The last decades of the twentieth century gave way to the Third Technological Revolution and this has brought about a new model of society known as the Information Society, or the Network Society (Castells 2000).Among the new technologies that emerge in the Third Technological Revolution are computing, telecommunications, microelectronics, optoelectronics and genetic engineering, but the advances made in computing and telecommunications were the reason for the Network of networks, the current and ever-popular Internet.
The classic concept of physical territory, displacement and distance was replaced by the instantaneous transmission of information and the provision of advanced online services (Cairncross 2001, Veltz 1999, Ges 1997).These recent technological advances in the means of communication are associated with contemporary globalisation (Davies 2004) and have brought about the formation of a large global network influenced by the flow of communication and economic, political, social and cultural interaction (Short & Kim 1999).
The transition from the industrial society to the information society has meant, in an economic aspect, a change from factory work to service work, and from physical work to mental work (Fukuyama 1999).For the first time in history, the human brain has direct productive strength and is not only a decisive element in the production system (Castells 2000).In the information society, production is worldwide and information technology is cheap, thus enabling the movement of information and financial transactions across national borders (Veltz 1999, Castells 2000).In the industrial society, information, technology and knowledge were exclusively for advanced nations, mainly concentrated in big metropolises and important capitals.In the information society, this situation has changed in some aspects for smaller-sized entities or rural outskirts because these have access to huge amounts of information that can generate knowledge and, at the same time, promote development processes.
Nowadays, we are witnessing a global opening dominated by communication as part of a worldwide network that reaches its highest density in urban areas.In this global context, the employment situation is closely related to new technologies and the Internet.In economic terms, the information and communications technology eliminates trade barriers and promotes the development of international business, leading to the reformulation of corporate strategies (Méndez 1997).In spatial terms, new technologies cause global cities to concentrate a high percentage of wealth and power, becoming the real economic and political references of modern states (Sassen 2003, Veltz 1999).In this process big cities and spaces nearby maintain a hegemonic position in the information society in respect to small urban centres and rural areas (García Ballesteros 1998).But nevertheless, the use of advanced services among citizens and businesses is not equally distributed in the urban spaces.There are contrasts in the presence, use and diffusion of ICT between central cities and their immediate peripheries, focusing on the quality of its citizens' lifestyles (Lois et al. 2010).
The information society offers new opportunities for citizens to communicate and interact using the Internet as a strategic tool.Citizens can access a variety of services and opportunities, communicating with other citizens, interacting with governments, associations, companies and banks, empowering work and distance learning, and so on (Armas Quintá & Macía Arce 2011, Muhammad et al. 2007, Rhee 2007).From the business point of view, the benefits of ICT are also evident.Computer advances have transformed the modus operandi of companies, information is managed in a more intelligent and dynamic way, and communication is instantaneous, even when performed on a remote basis.In addition, companies have found the Internet to be a new medium through which to promote their products on the market and start buying and selling processes with suppliers and customers.Without doubt, very favourable circumstances that have changed the whole way of understanding the reality of business nowadays (Méndez 1997).
Internet access requires a minimum of infrastructure, and this is usually provided by private telecommunication companies which only act in spaces associated with active markets and economic profitability.Thereby, the telecommunication market decides which territories are connected to the Internet and which are not.This has led to a large territorial and social breakdown known as "the Digital Divide", an exclusion of some communities from the information society.In addition, there is a social group that, in spite of having Internet access, does not use it correctly due to either an insufficient knowledge of how to do it or because it does not find it useful, and, in some cases, for both reasons (Macía Arce 2007, Armas Quintá 2009).Education of the population is therefore necessary if there is to be absolute immersion in the information society as well as information on the opportunities available.

The Digital Agenda for Europe
The Digital Agenda for Europe is one of the seven flagship initiatives of the EU2020S.As has been said at the beginning of this paper, the EU2020S was launched by the European Commission in March 2010 in order to break out of the current ongoing crisis and prepare the European economy for future challenges.The EU2020S foresees three priorities, or pillars, which integrate seven flagship initiatives: -Smart Growth • Digital Agenda for Europe • Innovation Union • Youth on the Move -Sustainable Growth • Resource-efficient Europe • An industrial policy for the globalisation era -Inclusive Growth • An agenda for new skills and jobs • European platform against poverty Specifically, the objective of the Digital Agenda for Europe is to maximise the social and economic potential of ICT, especially the Internet, as a strategic tool to improve the economic and societal activity: for doing business, working, communicating, and expressing ourselves freely.
The document recognises the Europeans' frustration when ICT did not fulfil the promise of better public services and economic prosperity, identifying seven most relevant obstacles: 1. fragmented digital markets, 2. lack of interoperability, 3. rising cybercrime and risk of low trust in networks, 4. lack of investment in networks, 5. insufficient research and innovation efforts, 6. lack of digital literacy and skills, and 7. missed opportunities in addressing societal challenges.
The Commission accepts these obstacles and proposes actions to overcome them.These actions constitute the seven pillars of the Digital Agenda for Europe:

Regional analysis of the digital society in Europe
The analysis of the data demonstrates that regions of Europe fall short of the information society with regard to the objectives proposed by the EU2020S.Europe is not only far away from broadband for all by the year 2013, but it also still finds itself with a very high percentage of the digitally illiterate amongst the population.This situation complicates the expansion of advanced Internet services, such as e-commerce, e-government, telework, etc., and has a negative impact on the European citizens' standards of living.
Moreover, the regional mapping of Europe at the NUTS2 level reveals a deep Digital Divide between Northern and Southern Europe as well as between Central and Eastern Europe.In general, Northern Europe, namely Norway and the Baltic Sea region with the exception of Poland, Lithuania and Latvia, meets the objectives of the EU2020S and achieves the best rates in Europe in terms of the information society.Central Europe also occupies a prominent position in the dissemination and use of ICT, although its figures are not as good as those achieved by Scandinavia.On the other hand, there are regions of the Mediterranean Basin with high values in France, medium values in Spain and some regions of Italy, Lazio and Emilia-Romagna, and low or very low in the rest of the Mediterranean.Finally, the sharpest Digital Divide is located in Eastern Europe, especially Romania and Bulgaria with percentage values far away from the objectives set by the EU2020S.
The population data on those that have never used a computer are very useful to identify regions positioned at the extremes of the Digital Divide.Undoubtedly, the group that does not use the computer can be called a digitally illiterate population.In Europe, the Scandinavian region, Netherlands, southern United Kingdom, France and the regions of Paris and Hessen have the best percentages of the population who uses or used the computer, with values above 90% (see Table 1 and Fig. 1).At the other extreme are regions of Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, southern Italy, including Campania and Sicily, the Portuguese Alentejo and north-western Croatia, with percentages of the population that has never used the computer above 40%.This is a very alarming percentage and confirms that Europe is moving at various speeds in the information society.The overall objectives of the EU2020S seem, in this sense, unrealistic if we analyse these and other similar data.
The analysis of the diffusion of broadband in European households confirms the Digital Divide that separates North and Central Europe from the rest of the continent.The percentage of households connected to a high-speed Internet stands out especially in the Scandinavian regions, including the most peripheral northern and rural economies.It exceeds 75%, giving the lie to the paradigm that tends to identify the phenomenon of the Digital Divide with rural areas (see Table 2 and Fig. 2).
Advanced online services are the final element that consolidates a community in the information society.In this sense, the European Union has a historic opportunity to try to balance the European digital market and involve all citizens.The analysis of users who shop online affirms once again the hegemony of Central and Northern Eu- rope in the information society.On this occasion we can positively highlight four geographic realities: 1.In Germany, a triangle that extends from Bavaria, North Rhine-Westphalia and Holstein and covers more than half of the country's territory, with the percentage of users who shop online at more than 75%.2. In France, there are two poles, one in the Paris Basin and another in the Rhone valley, opening up into the interior.3. The United Kingdom presents a very interesting model which highlights its peripheral regions (the Highlands, the West Country, the east coast north and south of Greater London).In short, it includes the coastal regions and even outstanding rural components (such as the Highlands and Plymouth).4. All Scandinavian regions have outstanding rates again, especially the northern part of Norway -another sign of the new role they and the rural peripheral regions can play in the information society.At the opposite extreme, Eastern Europe, in its southern half, has very poor percentages: fewer than 15% of users shop online.These regions are accompanied by Lithuania, Greece, the southern part of Italy with the exception of Lazio, and Portugal with the exception of Lisbon and Algarve (see Table 3, Figs 1 and 3).
To complete the analysis, it is interesting to establish a correlation between the indicators of the development of information society and some of the main indicators of economic issues, employment and education.For example, in terms of per capita GDP, the best scenario is represented by the provinces, or administrative entities of Central and Northern Europe.Thus, the European central space is dominated by the Blue Banana that extends from London to the north of Italy, with possible poles or branches in neighbouring regions such as Dublin, Aberdeen and the north-east quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula.The corridor that begins in the Blue Banana centre and extends to Denmark, Norway, Sweden and southern Finland is also very striking.
Conversely, Turkey and Eastern Europe, including the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, occupy positions very distant from the leading regions in Europe.This same situation, though to a lesser extent, is repeated at the base of the southern Mediterranean Basin, a factor that would establish a slight correlation between economic growth and the prominent positioning of the regions of Europe in the information society (see Table 3, Figs 1 and 3).Moreover, unemployment rates are higher in Turkey, Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, with the exception of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Costa Azul (the French Riviera), Corsica, northern Italy, Slovenia, Athens, Crete and Cyprus.Meanwhile, Central and Northern Europe maintain the largest job boards, except in three specific regions that are located in the north-west of Ireland, especially in the historical province of Connacht, the French region of Languedoc and the Lille-Charleroi corridor across the Franco-Belgian border (see Tables 4  and 5, Fig. 5).
When looking at these indicators, it is important to note that the data on per capita GDP and employment in Europe are only for 2009 and 2010.Therefore they do not reflect the strong impact of the crisis in the last years, particularly se-vere in Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy.Despite this statistical disadvantage, some correlation can be observed between per capita GDP, employment, and the development for the information society.As can be expected, in modern societies that generate wealth and employment there are also companies that opt for the use of ICT (see Figs 2 to 6).An analysis of the indicator population, aged 30-34 and with university studies, repeats a similar geographical pattern (see Fig. 6).However, it introduces three 'special situations' that require a reference: 1.With the exception of Bavaria, all regions of Germany and Austria are well away from the objectives of the EU2020S, especially the Aus-trian regions (23.5%) and all of northern Germany.In these regions, vocational training is a valid alternative to university studies, and this could explain the rates of the relatively low student population aged 30-34.2. All Italian regions, including the North, have very low figures on the population aged 30-34 with university education (19.8%).Italy occupies the last position of the EU-27, just over four percentage points ahead of Turkey (15.5%).This deficit in higher education could have a negative impact on the country's economic development in the medium term.3. The northern regions of Spain exceed the EU2020S objectives for the population aged 30-34 with a university degree, especially the commune of Madrid, the Basque Country and Navarre.However, these same regions have high youth unemployment, especially coinciding with the onset of the economic crisis, which could reflect a deep disconnection between universities and the job market demands.

Conclusions and policy recommendations
The analysed data and maps concerning the Digital Agenda for Europe allow us to identify a set of main ideas, potentials and challenges in order to point out several policy recommendations.

Main ideas
Europe is progressing at different rates in turning into an information society.It is possible to note a Digital Divide between Central Europe and the Scandinavian region on the one hand and the rest of the European regions on the other.The situation is the worst in the East European regions (see Table 1: Individuals who have never used a computer, 2011).
The Digital Agenda for Europe proposes the creation of a single digital market based on fast Internet access and advanced services.The main aim is broadband access for all by 2013, but in 2010 only 61% of households accessed the Internet via broadband (see Fig. 2: Broadband penetration rate, [2006][2007][2008][2009]. According to the Digital Agenda for Europe, the percentage of the population buying online should surpass 50%, but in 2010 only 37% of individuals aged 16-74 bought online.E-commerce, such as advanced Internet services to purchase goods and services, is only widespread in advanced regions of Europe (see Fig. 3: E-Commerce: Individuals who ordered goods or services over the Internet for private use, 2010).
The most advanced regions in the information society are also those that have better rates of per capita GDP and employment (see Figs 2 to 6).
Rural areas in Scandinavia are a model to follow in the information society, breaking the paradigm of the Digital Divide in rural areas.
The competitiveness of European regions would definitively require their integration into the information society.

Potentials
Most European populations using the computer are also those that benefit most from the penetration of broadband and the use of advanced services over the Internet.Particularly notable are the regions of France, Benelux, Germany, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland.
The Scandinavian peripheral regions use ICT as strategic tools to overcome their geographical distance to Central Europe.
The Scandinavian regions show that developing the information society in rural areas is possible.

Challenges
Rural, mountainous, sparsely populated and/ or peripheral regions usually occupy low positions in the information society as part of the phenomenon known as the Digital Divide.This geographical and technological isolation limits their competitiveness.
There are technical limitations to overcome the technological processes of the past, hindering the diffusion of ICT in certain regions, especially in Turkey.
The regions of Eastern Europe remain in positions far away from the information society.The Mediterranean regions also occupy positions lagging behind Central and Northern Europe.
Breaking the Digital Divide is a challenge for Europe.

Opportunities and policy recommendations
In the information society there is a group of people who do not use ICT despite the availability of appropriate technical means to do so (this is the difference between real and potential users).This situation exacerbates the Digital Divide.
Promotion of the use of ICT among the population requires advance planning to achieve the objectives in a reasonable time.
In many regions, the probability of a person having never used a computer decreases with the level of educational attainment.Planning the use of ICT in education can be an opportunity for the information society in Europe.
Appropriate policies for the information society should influence training (digital literacy and skills) and public awareness in the use of ICT.The projection is that as the older generations pass away, 'digital illiteracy' will become scarcer in Europe but, having said that, the education of digitally illiterate people is recommended.
E-learning represents a new way of understanding education in rural, mountainous, sparsely populated and outermost regions of Europe.
New technologies have the potential of increasing labour productivity and are strategic in R&D policy.More investment in ICT-related R&D is required by the sector.
New technologies reduce costs and save time for the public administration, citizens (e-government, online healthcare services and telework) and businesses (e-commerce).
There is an opportunity to overcome the uneven digital market of the European Union.Enterprises have the possibility of purchasing and selling electronically, but it is important to overcome the risk of low trust in networks in order to achieve a truly digital market.
New technologies promote environmental sustainability through telework diffusion (reduced commuter movement) and the construction of intelligent buildings that save energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
European integration and territorial cohesion will be of benefit if ICT spread is facilitated.This phenomenon requires public and private infrastructures, training and skills in ICT, low Internet access prices, and policies promoting online interactive services.The rural regions of Scandinavia could be the reference for Europe.

Fig. 3
Fig. 3. E-commerce: Individuals who ordered goods or services over the Internet for private use, 2010.
All these indicators and objectives are of interest for the EU2020S, but at present Eurostat and the Member States of the European Union have not compiled data to map this information at the regional scale (NUTS2 and NUTS3).So, the next chapter only presents data available at the regional scale and tries to explain the information society in Europe by taking into account data and maps concerning people who have never used a computer or broadband, or people who have ordered goods and services over the Internet for private use.Most data used in this paper are from Eurostat sources and cover the years 2006-2011.
be: to simplify copyright procedure, create a legal framework to facilitate the dissemination of cultural work in Europe, promote cross-border and European licenses, ensure the completion of the Single Euro Payment Area, protect online shops, etc.

Table 1 .
European regions with the lowest share of individuals who have never used a computer, 2011.

Table 2 .
European regions with the highest share of broadband penetration rate, 2006-2009.