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Challenges and perspectives for human activity in Arctic coastal environments – a review of selected interactions and problems

Marek Wojciech Jaskólski
Marek Wojciech Jaskólski
   | Jan 28, 2021
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Published Online: Jan 28, 2021
Page range: 127 - 143
Received: May 20, 2020
Accepted: Sep 30, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/mgrsd-2020-0036
Keywords
© 2021 Marek Wojciech Jaskólski, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

Figure 1

Arctic coastal settlements in geographical contextSources: sea routes are based on Rahman et al. 2014, and thearcticinstitute.org ; boundary shape files are from arcgis.com; the July isotherm is based on Kling 2009; permafrost limitation is based on www.nsidc.org and gtnp.arcticportal.org
Arctic coastal settlements in geographical contextSources: sea routes are based on Rahman et al. 2014, and thearcticinstitute.org ; boundary shape files are from arcgis.com; the July isotherm is based on Kling 2009; permafrost limitation is based on www.nsidc.org and gtnp.arcticportal.org

Figure 2

Anthropogenic and environmental interactions affecting the Arctic coast1. Landslides caused by heavy rainfall (Prno et al. 2011) 2. Destruction of roads caused by disturbance of the permafrost regime (Walker et al. 2015) 3. Indigenous peoples’ migration due to reduced hunting areas (Gorkhovich 2014) 4. Thaw slumps and mudflows in response to increased permafrost thaw (Lantuit et al. 2011, Lewkowicz & Way 2019) 5. Oil and gas pipeline leaks 6. Destructive effects of flooding 7. Harbour basin shallows due to increased sedimentation (Mercier & Laffly 2005) 8. Destruction of asphalt and concrete surfaces by deepening the active layer of permafrost (McFadden & Bennett 1999; Jørgensen & Andreasen 2007) 9. Intensified undercutting & erosion of the coastline, destruction of port infrastructure (Strzelecki et al. 2017; Jaskólski et al. 2018a); 10. Communication routes and transport infrastructure threatened by mass movements (Prno et al. 2011; Jaskólski et al. 2017) 11. Increasing use of the north-east passage and north-west passage (Ermida 2014; Stephen 2018) 12. Pollution & littering of the coast (Bergmann et al. 2017; Jaskólski et al. 2018b) 13. Increasing exploitation of natural resources (Ermida 2014; Stephen 2018) 14. Extreme waves destroying infrastructure (Dahl-Jensen et al. 2004; Buchwał et al. 2015) 15. Increased tourism negatively affecting the Arctic environment (Dawson, Johnston & Stewart 2017) 16. Tundra fires (Jones et al. 2015)
Anthropogenic and environmental interactions affecting the Arctic coast1. Landslides caused by heavy rainfall (Prno et al. 2011) 2. Destruction of roads caused by disturbance of the permafrost regime (Walker et al. 2015) 3. Indigenous peoples’ migration due to reduced hunting areas (Gorkhovich 2014) 4. Thaw slumps and mudflows in response to increased permafrost thaw (Lantuit et al. 2011, Lewkowicz & Way 2019) 5. Oil and gas pipeline leaks 6. Destructive effects of flooding 7. Harbour basin shallows due to increased sedimentation (Mercier & Laffly 2005) 8. Destruction of asphalt and concrete surfaces by deepening the active layer of permafrost (McFadden & Bennett 1999; Jørgensen & Andreasen 2007) 9. Intensified undercutting & erosion of the coastline, destruction of port infrastructure (Strzelecki et al. 2017; Jaskólski et al. 2018a); 10. Communication routes and transport infrastructure threatened by mass movements (Prno et al. 2011; Jaskólski et al. 2017) 11. Increasing use of the north-east passage and north-west passage (Ermida 2014; Stephen 2018) 12. Pollution & littering of the coast (Bergmann et al. 2017; Jaskólski et al. 2018b) 13. Increasing exploitation of natural resources (Ermida 2014; Stephen 2018) 14. Extreme waves destroying infrastructure (Dahl-Jensen et al. 2004; Buchwał et al. 2015) 15. Increased tourism negatively affecting the Arctic environment (Dawson, Johnston & Stewart 2017) 16. Tundra fires (Jones et al. 2015)

Figure 3

Settlements and their challenges in different parts of the Arctica) Salekhard, Russia: in the future, these multi-storey buildings will be threatened by increasing permafrost thaw; b) Ilulissat, Greenland: a noticeable lack of convenient investment locations; c) Port in Ilulissat, Greenland: visible water and sewage pipes, fish processing plant and warehouses in the distance d) Longyearbyen, Svalbard: erosion threatening the warehouses; e) Barentsburg, Svalbard: a characteristic distribution of Arctic buildings located on the coast; f) Disko Bay, Greenland: visible exhaust emissions from a cruise ship; g) Herschel Island, Canada: the thawing permafrost cliffs are causing coastal retreat; h) Qikiqtaruk Territorial Park, Canada: historic buildings flooded by the sea are UNESCO candidates; i) Nuugaatsiaq, Greenland: buildings destroyed by tsunami waves; j) Polish Polar Station Hornsund, Svalbard: erosion threatening the station infrastructure forces annual renovation of coastal protection elements; k) Pyramiden, Svalbard: a landslide cut off the road; l) Pyramiden, Svalbard: thawing permafrost caused the collapse of the shooting range and the stands;Source: photos (a–g, i–k) taken by Marek Jaskólski; photo (h) taken by Team Shrub, University of Edinburgh
Settlements and their challenges in different parts of the Arctica) Salekhard, Russia: in the future, these multi-storey buildings will be threatened by increasing permafrost thaw; b) Ilulissat, Greenland: a noticeable lack of convenient investment locations; c) Port in Ilulissat, Greenland: visible water and sewage pipes, fish processing plant and warehouses in the distance d) Longyearbyen, Svalbard: erosion threatening the warehouses; e) Barentsburg, Svalbard: a characteristic distribution of Arctic buildings located on the coast; f) Disko Bay, Greenland: visible exhaust emissions from a cruise ship; g) Herschel Island, Canada: the thawing permafrost cliffs are causing coastal retreat; h) Qikiqtaruk Territorial Park, Canada: historic buildings flooded by the sea are UNESCO candidates; i) Nuugaatsiaq, Greenland: buildings destroyed by tsunami waves; j) Polish Polar Station Hornsund, Svalbard: erosion threatening the station infrastructure forces annual renovation of coastal protection elements; k) Pyramiden, Svalbard: a landslide cut off the road; l) Pyramiden, Svalbard: thawing permafrost caused the collapse of the shooting range and the stands;Source: photos (a–g, i–k) taken by Marek Jaskólski; photo (h) taken by Team Shrub, University of Edinburgh

Review of cause and effect relationships of environmental processes related to climate change

Process Area of occurrence Triggering factor Effect Threat Literature Example
Landslides / Thaw slumps Slope Increased volume of rainfall, storms and thawing permafrost exceeds the retention possibilities of slope sediments that are mostly weathered and not covered with vegetation. Slide of rock material A direct threat to road and settlement infrastructureThe triggering of tsunami waves Prno et al., 2011; Harbitz et al., 2014; Buchwał et al., 2015; Higman et al., 2018; Lewkowicz & Way 2019
Avalanches Slope Increase in average temperature, change in temperature distribution over time. The appearance of a thaw in spring Slide of snow masses An immediate threat to road and settlement infrastructure and human life Stoffel et al., 2006; Shnyparkov et al., 2012; Eckerstorfer & Christiansen 2012; Eckerstorfer et al., 2014
Permafrost thaw Anywhere Increase in average temperature Increasing the thickness of the active layer, methane and carbon dioxide release, greater water supply, mudflows Destruction of the surface of roads and airfields.The collapse of load-bearing pillars, disruption of the construction of gas and oil pipelines, buildings Jørgensen & Andreasen 2007; Lantuit et al., 2011; Shiklomanov et al., 2017; Anisimov & Orttung 2019; Biskaborn et al., 2019; Streletskiy et al., 2019; Teufel & Sushama 2019
Erosion Coastal zone, river valleys The disappearance of sea ice enabling the development of waves, an increase in the amount of river water through intensified melting of glaciers and frequent and more intensive rainfall Increased shore erosion from waves.Increased erosion in a river valley through increased flow in rivers. Undercutting and destruction of banks, reinforcements and coastal buildings.Increase in pressure on bridge and flyover spans Wobus et al., 2011; Barnhart et al., 2014; Zagórski et al., 2015; Fritz et al., 2017; Anonymous et al., 2018; Irrgang et al., 2019; Nicu et al., 2020 Zagórski et al., 2020;
Accumulation Coastal zone, delta Intensified melting of glaciers and erosion in riverbeds Increased supply of accumulation material, increase in shallows (particularly dangerous in harbour basins and accesses) Danger to maritime navigation, limitation of Arctic port capacity Mercier & Laffly 2005; Zajączkowski et al., 2008; Sessford et al., 2015; Strzelecki et al., 2015; Bourriquen et al., 2018;
Floods Coastal zone, river valleys Intensified melting of glaciers, weather anomalies, a general increase in precipitation in the Arctic Erosion of river beds, flood plains, flooding of river valleys An immediate threat to road and settlement infrastructure and human life Peterson et al., 2002; Kane et al., 2003; Rachlewicz, 2009; Prno et al., 2011; Dahlke et al., 2012; Radosavljević et al., 2016
Tundra fires Anywhere Average temperature rise, Tundra drying, Anthropogenic pressure Reduction of biomass, the disappearance of ecosystems, increase of greenhouse gas supply to the atmosphere An immediate threat to road and settlement infrastructure and human life Higuera et al., 2011; Jones et al., 2015
Migration of species Anywhere Average temperature rise, Tundra drying, Anthropogenic pressure Migration of species, loss of ecosystems Migration of indigenous peoples engaged in reindeer herding, hunting and fishing Walker & Everett 1987; Hitch & Leberg., 2007; Gorokhovich et al., 2014; Walker et al., 2015; Maliniemi et al., 2018

The conflict of interest on chosen generalized representative examples

Local population Global population Government Business Environment
Wants to benefit from tourism, industry, northern sea routes, modern technologies and services Wants to visit the Arctic area, have access to cheaper raw materials and goods Wants to benefit from tourism, industry, northern sea routes, modern technologies and services Wants to benefit from tourism, industry, northern sea routes, modern technologies and services Increased tourism & industry adds to negative impact on the environment, tundra trampling, pollution, increased sea traffic, air traffic, etc.
but and
Wants climate security and the reduction of processes that have a negative impact on tourism and their food security:

disappearing hunting areas

disappearing glaciers

contamination

 Wants climate security.Wants:

to hunt

to see glaciers

to see a clean, unspoiled landscape

to have a clear climate conscience

 Has to introduce limits e.g. in the number of tourists and the areas made available to them Wishes to abolish restrictions e.g. on the number of tourists and the areas made available to them Setting limits on marine traffic or reducing the number of tourists and the areas made available to them will allow the environment to regenerate in a better way

List of all analysed and presented settlements in Figure 1.

Name Belonging Latitude Longitude Population Census Year Primary Function
Illorsuit Greenland 71°14N 53°34W 101 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Sachs Harbour Canada 71°59N 125°14W 103 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Yukagir Russia 71°46N 139°53E 128 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Grise Fiord Canada 76°25N 82°53W 129 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Ny-Ålesund Norway 78°55N 11°55E 130 2010 Research
Skarsvåg Norway 71°8N 25°49E 141 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Innaarsuit Greenland 73°11N 56°0W 153 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Ukkusissat Greenland 71°2N 51°53W 155 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Aappilattoq Greenland 72°53N 55°36W 169 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Kangersuatsiaq Greenland 72°22N 55°33W 173 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Saqqaq Greenland 70°0N 51°56W 173 2014 Tourism
Qaarsut Greenland 70°43N 52°38W 196 2010 Tourism
Resolute Canada 74°41N 94°49W 198 2012 Military
Gamvik Norway 71°3N 28°14E 200 2010 Fishery
Nuussuaq Greenland 74°6N 57°3W 202 2015 Fishery & Hunting
Saattut Greenland 70°48N 51°38W 212 2010 Fishery & Hunting
Ikerasak Greenland 70°30N 51°18W 238 2014 Fishery & Hunting
Tasiusaq Greenland 73°22N 56°3W 248 2010 Fishery & Hunting
Kaktovik USA 70°7N 143°36W 256 2018 Fishery & Hunting
Paulatuk Canada 69°21N 124°4W 265 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Ulukhaktok Canada 70°44N 117°46W 396 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Kullorsuaq Greenland 74°34N 57°13W 448 2013 Fishery & Hunting
Ittoqqortoormiit Greenland 70°29N 21°58W 452 2013 Fishery & Hunting
Barentsburg Russia 78°4N 14°30E 471 2015 Industry
Bykovsky Russia 72°0N 129°6E 514 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Nayba Russia 70°50N 130°45E 522 2010 Fishery & Hunting
Kangaatsiaq Greenland 68°18N 53°27W 552 2011 Fishery & Hunting
Wainwright USA 70°38N 160°0W 556 2010 Fishery & Hunting
Kangaatsiaq Greenland 68°18N 53°27W 558 2013 Fishery & Hunting
Qaanaaq (Thule) Greenland 77°30N 69°13W 656 2013 Military
Point Hope USA 68°20N 166°45W 709 2017 Fishery & Hunting
Mehamn Norway 71°2N 27°50E 779 2017 Fishery
Qeqertarsuaq Greenland 69°14N 53°33W 856 2018 Fishery & Hunting
Arctic Bay Canada 73°2N 85°9W 868 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Tuktoyaktuk Canada 69°26N 133°2W 898 2016 Industry
Havøysund Norway 70°59N 24°39E 1027 2012 Fishery
Taloyoak Canada 69°32N 93°31W 1029 2016 Fishery & Hunting
Upernavik Greenland 72°47N 56°9W 1065 2018 Fishery & Hunting
Berlevåg Norway 70°51N 24°5E 1113 2005 Fishery
Qasigiannguit Greenland 68°49N 51°11W 1171 2013 Fishery
Dikson Russia 73°30N 80°31E 1200 2004 Maritime Transport
Qasigiannguit Greenland 68°49N 51°11W 1217 2011 Fishery
Uummannaq Greenland 70°40N 52°7W 1282 2013 Tourism
Snezhnogorsk Russia 69°11N 33°13E 1430 2010 Military
Pond Inlet Canada 72°42N 77°57W 1617 2016 Industry
Cambridge Bay Canada 69°7N 105°3W 1766 2016 Maritime Transport
Rypefjord Norway 70°38N 23°40E 1838 2017 Fishery
Belushya Guba Russia 71°32N 52°19E 1972 2010 Military
Vardø Norway 70°22N 31°1E 2110 2018 Fishery
Longyearbyen Norway 78°13N 15°38E 2144 2015 Tourism
Prudhoe Bay USA 70°19N 148°30W 2174 2010 Industry
Båtsfjord Norway 70°38N 29°43E 2185 2005 Fishery
Melbu Norway 68°30N 14°50E 2202 2018 Fishery
Lakselv Norway 70°3N 24°57E 2283 2017 Fishery
Honningsvåg Norway 70°58N 25°58E 2484 2017 Maritime Transport
Andenes Norway 69°19N 16°8E 2694 2018 Military
Skjervøy Norway 70°2N 20°58E 2881 2014 Fishery
Aasiaat Greenland 68°43N 52°39W 3112 2017 Fishery & Hunting
Stokmarknes Norway 68°33N 14°54E 3367 2018 Maritime Transport
Kirkenes Norway 69°43N 30°3E 3529 2018 Fishery & Hunting
Leknes Norway 68°8N 13°36E 3556 2018 Maritime Transport
Pevek Russia 69°42N 170°17E 4547 2017 Industry
Finnsnes Norway 69°13N 17°58E 4658 2017 Administration
Utqiaġvik (Barrow) USA 71°18N 156°44W 4680 2004 Industry
Svolvær Norway 68°14N 14°34E 4720 2018 Fishery
Ilulissat Greenland 69°13N 51°6W 4905 2018 Administration
Vidyayevo Russia 69°19N 32°48E 5985 2018 Military
Vadsø Norway 70°4N 29°44E 6223 2014 Fishery
Fauske Norway 67°15N 15°23E 9556 2014 Administration
Sortland Norway 68°41N 15°24E 10129 2014 Administration
Hammerfest Norway 70°39N 23°41E 10287 2014 Industry
Gadzhiyevo Russia 69°15N 33°21E 11068 2010 Military
Narvik Norway 68°26N 17°25E 14141 2018 Administration
Polyarny Russia 69°12N 33°27E 16468 2014 Military
Alta Norway 69°58N 23°17E 19822 2014 Industry
Harstad Norway 68°47N 16°32E 24820 2018 Industry
Severomorsk Russia 69°4N 33°25E 48977 2014 Military
Bodø Norway 67°16N 14°24E 49731 2014 Military
Tiksi Russia 71°39N 128°48E 50063 2014 Maritime Transport
Tromsø Norway 69°39N 18°57E 71590 2014 Administration
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