Uneingeschränkter Zugang

Temporary migration as a mechanism for lasting cultural change: evidence from Nepal

Sarah Janzen
Sarah Janzen
 und 
Savannah Noray
Savannah Noray
   | 31. Dez. 2021
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Online veröffentlicht: 31. Dez. 2021
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Akzeptiert: 20. Nov. 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2021-0016
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© 2021 Sarah Janzen et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Figure 1

Fraction of decisions made jointly/alone across husband's migration status.
Fraction of decisions made jointly/alone across husband's migration status.

Figure 2

Persistence in women's decision-making power.Fraction of Decisions Made by•Husband Alone ○Husband+Wife ▴Wife Alone.
Persistence in women's decision-making power.Fraction of Decisions Made by•Husband Alone ○Husband+Wife ▴Wife Alone.

Figure A1

Village development committees representing seven districts in our data.Note: The seven districts are Dhading, Mahotari, Nuwakot, Palpa, Rautahat, Sarlahi, and Tanahu.
Village development committees representing seven districts in our data.Note: The seven districts are Dhading, Mahotari, Nuwakot, Palpa, Rautahat, Sarlahi, and Tanahu.

Changes in expenditures, income, and financial behavior as the husband's migrant status changes – top-coded at the 99th percentile

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A: expenditures
Temptation goods −120.197** (53.600) −123.775** (53.349) −103.070* (58.289) −84.433 (89.528)
N 7,417 7,417 2,940 2,940
Health care −142.523 (209.494) 67.791 (208.082) 37.156 (213.112) 384.495 (441.580)
N 7,145 7,145 2,850 2,850
Ceremonies or celebrations −61.221 (200.328) −98.690 (207.853) −101.441 (244.901) −69.571 (428.462)
N 7,407 7,407 2,948 2,948
Children's education 46.994 (70.327) 57.460 (80.099) 32.590 (86.554) −17.220 (91.988)
N 7,339 7,339 2,954 2,954
Children's clothing 66.530*** (19.940) 66.780*** (19.517) 68.799*** (21.046) 43.934 (46.406)
N 7,349 7,349 2,965 2,965
Adult women's clothing −12.056 (17.752) −11.160 (18.640) −5.324 (18.132) 22.142 (36.732)
N 7,548 7,548 3,005 3,005
Panel B: income and financial behavior
Annual income 47,989.637*** (10,443.880) 42,926.326*** (10,572.657) 40,291.132*** (12,732.178) 46,886.496** (20,457.034)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Savings deposited in past month 26.565 (117.086) 65.817 (133.244) 33.088 (151.638) 63.081 (288.894)
N 7,524 7,524 2,996 2,996
Currently borrowing −4,592.633 (5,078.635) −4,186.492 (5,943.972) −7,271.935 (6,512.158) −4,250.191 (11,469.621)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Currently lending −499.550 (1,535.515) 538.604 (1,651.946) 154.814 (1,959.374) −2,634.804 (3,550.470)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Outcomes by migrant status

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Overall Ever migrate Never migrate P-value (2) = (3)
Panel A: Decision-making over all categories
Husband alone 0.136 0.105 0.156 0.000***
[0.209] [0.187] [0.220]
Husband and wife jointly 0.338 0.304 0.361 0.000***
[0.313] [0.313] [0.310]
Wife alone 0.108 0.177 0.062 0.000***
[0.208] [0.256] [0.152]
Panel B: Income and financial behavior
Annual income 11.562 11.826 11.388 0.000***
[3.117] [2.931] [3.223]
Savings deposited in past month 4.425 4.699 4.244 0.000***
[3.056] [3.036] [3.055]
Currently borrowing 6.922 7.049 6.838 0.128
[5.886] [5.855] [5.906]
Currently lent 1.630 1.945 1.421 0.000***
[4.006] [4.307] [3.780]
Panel C: Expenditures
Temptation goods 4.124 3.528 4.515 0.000***
[3.685] [3.677] [3.638]
Health care 5.971 5.765 6.107 0.000***
[3.404] [3.428] [3.381]
Ceremonies or celebrations 7.111 7.063 7.143 0.143
[2.298] [2.357] [2.259]
Child education 5.128 5.856 4.641 0.000***
[3.381] [2.961] [3.553]
Child clothing 5.184 5.860 4.730 0.000***
[2.985] [2.518] [3.181]
Adult women clothing 6.330 6.424 6.268 0.000***
[1.626] [1.464] [1.721]
N 7,572 3,013 4,559 7,572

Changes in income and financial behavior (asinh) as the husband's migrant status changes

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Annual income 0.280** (0.130) 0.173 (0.134) 0.204 (0.135) 0.004 (0.232)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Savings deposited in past month 0.122 (0.085) 0.092 (0.100) 0.071 (0.112) −0.173 (0.207)
N 7,524 7,524 2,996 2,996
Currently borrowing 0.056 (0.217) 0.269 (0.240) 0.324 (0.269) 0.139 (0.490)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Currently lending −0.073 (0.184) 0.016 (0.197) −0.043 (0.224) −0.299 (0.432)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Selection into attrition by migration status over time

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Not found Dropped Current migrant Not found × current migrant Dropped × current migrant N
Household characteristics
No. of resident household members 0.042 0.098 0.270*** 0.103 −0.152 6,245
Resident mother-in-law 0.020 −0.019 0.144*** 0.121*** 0.020 6,245
Resident father-in-law 0.009 −0.010 0.113*** 0.089** 0.049 6,245
Resident daughter-in-law 0.040* −0.015 −0.165*** −0.041 0.012 6,245
Household shocks
Natural disaster (nonearthquake) −0.002 0.028** −0.008 0.005 −0.004 6,227
Serious illness 0.039* 0.023 −0.029** −0.083* 0.061 6,231
Death of household member 0.018 0.019* −0.016** 0.026 0.017 6,229
Falling agricultural prices −0.007 0.205*** −0.021* −0.049** −0.046 6,116
Decrease in income −0.016 0.243*** −0.039*** −0.032 −0.045 6,130
Loss of employment 0.014 0.013* −0.014*** −0.006 −0.013 6,217
Mercalli scale 2015 earthquake −0.264 5.278*** −0.229** 0.710** 0.037 6,245

Changes in expenditures, income, and financial behavior as the husband's migrant status changes – log(x+1)

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A: expenditures
Temptation goods −0.951*** (0.153) −1.086*** (0.161) −1.066*** (0.159) −1.072*** (0.280)
N 7,417 7,417 2,940 2,940
Health care −0.013 (0.131) −0.035 (0.152) −0.032 (0.158) 0.233 (0.275)
N 7,145 7,145 2,850 2,850
Ceremonies or celebrations 0.035 (0.097) 0.006 (0.092) 0.056 (0.102) −0.187 (0.220)
N 7,407 7,407 2,948 2,948
Children's education 0.154* (0.092) 0.246** (0.096) 0.163* (0.099) −0.176 (0.162)
N 7,339 7,339 2,954 2,954
Children's clothing 0.351*** (0.088) 0.401*** (0.094) 0.399*** (0.098) 0.163 (0.151)
N 7,349 7,349 2,965 2,965
Adult women's clothing −0.062 (0.058) −0.049 (0.059) −0.022 (0.059) 0.022 (0.115)
N 7,548 7,548 3,005 3,005
Panel B: income and financial behavior
Annual income 0.281** (0.124) 0.177 (0.128) 0.208 (0.129) 0.023 (0.221)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Savings deposited in past month 0.109 (0.076) 0.085 (0.090) 0.064 (0.102) −0.155 (0.189)
N 7,524 7,524 2,996 2,996
Currently borrowing 0.055 (0.204) 0.254 (0.225) 0.304 (0.253) 0.131 (0.461)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Currently lending −0.068 (0.173) 0.016 (0.185) −0.040 (0.210) −0.282 (0.406)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Husband's migration and household attrition

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Absent in next round −0.020 (0.019) 0.002 (0.022) 0.046** (0.022) −0.042 (0.038)
N 6,225 6,225 2,465 2,465
  Not found −0.002 (0.015) 0.019 (0.017) 0.024 (0.018) −0.042 (0.038)
  N 6,225 6,225 2,465 2,465
  Dropped −0.017 (0.016) −0.017 (0.016) 0.022 (0.015) -
  N 6,225 6,225 2,465 -
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Attrition over time

(1) (2) (3) (4)
2014 2016 2017 2018
Full sample 2,508 2,281 1,456 1,327
Attrition (not found) . 227 165 294
Attrition (dropped) . 0 887 887

Shifts in expenditures (asinh) as the husband's migrant status changes – only considering the first two rounds of data

(1) (2) (3)
Temptation goods −0.921*** (0.228) −1.154*** (0.232) −1.400*** (0.319)
N 4,352 4,352 1,540
Health care 0.052 (0.189) 0.029 (0.224) −0.012 (0.371)
N 4,016 4,016 1,426
Ceremonies or celebrations 0.113 (0.135) −0.134 (0.137) −0.086 (0.222)
N 4,338 4,338 1,554
Child education 0.149 (0.155) 0.415** (0.180) 0.543** (0.242)
N 4,270 4,270 1,558
Child clothing 0.289** (0.140) 0.423*** (0.161) 0.456** (0.209)
N 4,286 4,286 1,572
Adult women clothing −0.053 (0.098) 0.071 (0.107) 0.160 (0.186)
N 4,530 4,530 1,618
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No

Characteristics by migrant status

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Overall Husband ever migrate Son ever migrate P-value (2) = (3)
Panel A
Husband characteristics
Age 46.119 38.934 51.839 0.000***
[12.921] [9.339] [10.627]
Years of education 5.104 6.219 4.553 0.000***
[3.940] [3.517] [3.882]
Can read or write 0.763 0.877 0.729 0.000***
[0.365] [0.270] [0.377]
Wife characteristics
Age 41.650 35.076 47.247 0.000***
[12.143] [9.016] [9.852]
Years of education 2.513 3.770 1.584 0.000***
[3.545] [3.790] [2.849]
Can read or write 0.527 0.677 0.449 0.000***
[0.401] [0.369] [0.378]
N 2,508 979 1,317 1,923
Panel B
Household characteristics income (asinh) 11.562 11.826 11.6073 0.000***
[3.117] [2.931] [3.183]
No. of resident household members 3.483 3.629 3.323 0.000***
[1.854] [1.745] [1.877]
Resident mother-in-law 0.230 0.316 0.158 0.000***
[0.421] [0.465] [0.365]
Resident father-in-law 0.159 0.232 0.088 0.000***
[0.365] [0.422] [0.284]
Resident daughter-in-law 0.185 0.084 0.308 0.000***
[0.388] [0.277] [0.462]
Shocks
Natural disaster (nonearthquake) 0.044 0.039 0.052 0.011**
[0.206] [0.194] [0.222]
Serious illness 0.223 0.213 0.223 0.214
[0.416] [0.409] [0.417]
Death of household member 0.055 0.053 0.054 0.959
[0.228] [0.225] [0.226]
Falling agricultural prices 0.131 0.109 0.128 0.000***
[0.338] [0.312] [0.335]
Decrease in income 0.155 0.134 0.154 0.003***
[0.362] [0.341] [0.361]
Loss of employment 0.023 0.020 0.023 0.251
[0.151] [0.141] [0.150]
Mercalli scale 2015 earthquake 6.926 6.870 6.922 0.006***
[0.505] [0.525] [0.512]
N 7,572 3,013 4,028 5,888

Changes in income and financial behavior (asinh) as son's migration status changes

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Annual income 0.497*** (0.156) 0.524*** (0.163) 0.541*** (0.164) 0.509* (0.287)
N 7,572 7,572 4,028 4,028
Savings deposited in past month 0.034 (0.082) 0.027 (0.080) 0.047 (0.080) 0.110 (0.191)
N 7,524 7,524 4,005 4,005
Currently borrowing 0.523*** (0.197) 0.482** (0.196) 0.496** (0.213) 0.833** (0.405)
N 7,572 7,572 4,028 4,028
Currently lending −0.117 (0.168) −0.180 (0.167) −0.164 (0.170) 0.008 (0.275)
N 7,572 7,572 4,028 4,028
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Shifts in expenditures (asinh) as son's migration status changes

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Temptation goods 0.176 (0.134) 0.189 (0.129) 0.134 (0.134) 0.201 (0.243)
N 7,417 7,417 3,956 3,956
Health care 0.221 (0.147) 0.236 (0.149) 0.199 (0.144) 0.219 (0.275)
N 7,145 7,145 3,811 3,811
Ceremonies or celebrations 0.122 (0.127) 0.111 (0.129) 0.111 (0.128) 0.009 (0.221)
N 7,407 7,407 3,939 3,939
Child education −0.351*** (0.128) −0.357*** (0.128) −0.262** (0.132) −0.211 (0.177)
N 7,339 7,339 3,845 3,845
Child clothing −0.089 (0.107) −0.079 (0.106) 0.006 (0.107) −0.086 (0.160)
N 7,349 7,349 3,839 3,839
Adult women clothing −0.059 (0.077) −0.055 (0.076) −0.045 (0.076) −0.076 (0.136)
N 7548 7548 4010 4010
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Changes in income and financial behavior (asinh) as the husband's migrant status changes – only considering migration spells outside of Nepal and lasting >6 months

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Annual income 0.361** (0.169) 0.267 (0.165) 0.245 (0.174) 0.076 (0.226)
N 7,572 7,572 2,197 2,197
Savings deposited in past month 0.245** (0.101) 0.235** (0.109) 0.332*** (0.120) 0.062 (0.254)
N 7,524 7,524 2,184 2,184
Currently borrowing −0.010 (0.271) 0.152 (0.282) 0.063 (0.310) 0.022 (0.560)
N 7,572 7,572 2,197 2,197
Currently lending 0.228 (0.214) 0.362 (0.232) 0.311 (0.258) −0.026 (0.489)
N 7,572 7,572 2,197 2,197
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Shifts in decision-making power as the husband's migrant status changes – only considering migration spells outside of Nepal and lasting >6 months

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A: all categories
Husband alone −0.059*** (0.011) −0.055*** (0.010) −0.056*** (0.010) −0.050*** (0.014)
Husband and wife jointly −0.095*** (0.017) −0.105*** (0.018) −0.105*** (0.019) −0.103*** (0.032)
Wife alone 0.115*** (0.014) 0.116*** (0.016) 0.121*** (0.016) 0.121*** (0.025)
N 7,569 7,569 2,194 2,194
Panel B: disaggregated by category
Temptation goods
Husband alone −0.102*** (0.013) −0.101*** (0.014) −0.105*** (0.014) −0.107*** (0.024)
Husband and wife jointly −0.031*** (0.010) −0.041*** (0.012) −0.039*** (0.013) −0.034* (0.020)
Wife alone 0.014** (0.006) 0.014** (0.006) 0.012* (0.007) 0.005 (0.015)
N 7,524 7,524 2,184 2,184
Health care
Husband alone −0.037** (0.015) −0.032** (0.015) −0.032** (0.015) −0.028 (0.020)
Husband and wife jointly −0.152*** (0.023) −0.171*** (0.021) −0.167*** (0.023) −0.163*** (0.048)
Wife alone 0.158*** (0.021) 0.168*** (0.021) 0.170*** (0.023) 0.169*** (0.037)
N 7,564 7,564 2,194 2,194
Ceremonies or celebrations
Husband alone −0.049*** (0.016) −0.044*** (0.016) −0.046*** (0.016) −0.033 (0.021)
Husband and wife jointly −0.095*** (0.023) −0.103*** (0.024) −0.106*** (0.025) −0.100** (0.047)
Wife alone 0.130*** (0.019) 0.132*** (0.021) 0.140*** (0.023) 0.130*** (0.039)
N 7,537 7,537 2,184 2,184
Child education
Husband alone −0.063*** (0.019) −0.056*** (0.017) −0.049*** (0.016) −0.036 (0.022)
Husband and wife jointly −0.087*** (0.027) −0.088*** (0.027) −0.094*** (0.029) −0.108** (0.048)
Wife alone 0.161*** (0.023) 0.160*** (0.025) 0.170*** (0.027) 0.181*** (0.037)
N 7,415 7,415 2,171 2,171
Child clothing
Husband alone −0.071*** (0.018) −0.067*** (0.017) −0.063*** (0.017) −0.053** (0.023)
Husband and wife jointly −0.121*** (0.029) −0.123*** (0.030) −0.127*** (0.031) −0.152*** (0.048)
Wife alone 0.186*** (0.025) 0.186*** (0.028) 0.194*** (0.030) 0.206*** (0.045)
N 7,469 7,469 2,182 2,182
Adult women clothing
Husband alone −0.049** (0.020) −0.040** (0.019) −0.042** (0.020) −0.035 (0.024)
Husband and wife jointly −0.162*** (0.023) −0.180*** (0.022) −0.175*** (0.024) −0.190*** (0.047)
Wife alone 0.170*** (0.018) 0.179*** (0.020) 0.185*** (0.020) 0.196*** (0.045)
N 7,553 7,553 2,192 2,192
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Dynamic shifts in decision-making power between husband and wife: first-difference approach

α1: returned α2: left P-value: |α1| = |α2| N
Panel A: Δ All categories
Husband alone 0.022 (0.020) −0.026 (0.028) 0.919 3,580
Husband and wife jointly 0.144*** (0.032) −0.040 (0.031) 0.036** 3,580
Wife alone −0.111*** (0.023) 0.086*** (0.028) 0.557 3,580
Panel B: Δ disaggregated by category
Δ Temptation goods
Husband alone 0.079*** (0.025) −0.024 (0.036) 0.208 3,566
Husband and wife jointly 0.044* (0.026) −0.031 (0.027) 0.767 3,566
Wife alone −0.015 (0.017) 0.013 (0.018) 0.963 3,566
Δ Health care
Husband alone 0.004 (0.025) −0.024 (0.034) 0.646 3,579
Husband and wife jointly 0.193*** (0.047) −0.036 (0.048) 0.035** 3,579
Wife alone −0.149*** (0.032) 0.121*** (0.041) 0.646 3,579
Δ Ceremonies
Husband alone 0.022 (0.025) −0.019 (0.034) 0.945 3,571
Husband and wife jointly 0.160*** (0.047) −0.057 (0.050) 0.202 3,571
Wife alone −0.127*** (0.039) 0.106** (0.048) 0.784 3,571
Δ Child education
Husband alone −0.008 (0.032) −0.063 (0.044) 0.262 3,456
Husband and wife jointly 0.154*** (0.056) −0.039 (0.055) 0.185 3,456
Wife alone −0.167*** (0.044) 0.085** (0.039) 0.234 3,456
Δ Child clothing
Husband alone 0.010 (0.033) −0.041 (0.043) 0.624 3,495
Husband and wife jointly 0.168*** (0.056) −0.071 (0.051) 0.238 3,495
Wife alone −0.169*** (0.048) 0.109** (0.046) 0.453 3,495
Δ Adult women clothing
Husband alone 0.006 (0.036) −0.003 (0.036) 0.963 3,572
Husband and wife jointly 0.247*** (0.057) −0.102* (0.052) 0.078* 3,572
Wife alone −0.195*** (0.045) 0.099** (0.045) 0.202 3,572

Shifts in expenditures (asinh) as the husband's migrant status changes

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Temptation goods −1.053*** (0.168) −1.204*** (0.178) −1.184*** (0.176) −1.196*** (0.308)
N 7,417 7,417 2,940 2,940
Health care −0.009 (0.142) −0.035 (0.166) −0.031 (0.173) 0.257 (0.301)
N 7,145 7,145 2,850 2,850
Ceremonies or celebrations 0.044 (0.105) 0.014 (0.100) 0.067 (0.109) −0.196 (0.237)
N 7,407 7,407 2,948 2,948
Child education 0.170* (0.101) 0.272*** (0.104) 0.181* (0.108) −0.190 (0.178)
N 7,339 7,339 2,954 2,954
Child clothing 0.385*** (0.096) 0.442*** (0.104) 0.437*** (0.109) 0.176 (0.167)
N 7,349 7,349 2,965 2,965
Adult women clothing −0.071 (0.063) −0.057 (0.064) −0.029 (0.065) 0.016 (0.124)
N 7,548 7,548 3,005 3,005
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Dynamic shifts in expenditures: first-difference approach (asinh)

α1: returned α2: left P-value: |α1| = |α2| N
Δ Temptation goods 1.084*** (0.361) −0.952** (0.386) 0.819 3,491
Δ Health care 0.328 (0.369) 0.672** (0.329) 0.467 3,368
Δ Ceremonies or celebrations −0.403 (0.286) −0.909*** (0.299) 0.163 3,473
Δ Child education −0.310 (0.236) −0.450* (0.258) 0.615 3,389
Δ Child clothing −0.107 (0.213) −0.119 (0.243) 0.955 3,407
Δ Adult women clothing −0.027 (0.153) −0.120 (0.165) 0.693 3,563

Heterogeneity by trip length: change in decision-making (all categories)

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Dependent variable: husband alone
Migrant 0.00525 (0.0145) 0.00860 (0.0152) 0.00735 (0.0148) 0.0209 (0.0257)
Migrant × ≥ 6 months −0.0619*** (0.0144) −0.0616*** (0.0152) −0.0600*** (0.0152) −0.0541** (0.0224)
N 7,569 7,569 3,010 3,010
Dep. variable: husband and wife jointly
Migrant −0.0784*** (0.0212) −0.0975*** (0.0232) −0.0905*** (0.0242) −0.105*** (0.0356)
Migrant × ≥ 6 months −0.0180 (0.0231) −0.0184 (0.0224) −0.0176 (0.0225) −0.0274 (0.0362)
N 7,569 7,569 3,010 3,010
Dep. variable: wife alone
Migrant 0.0645*** (0.0178) 0.0700*** (0.0194) 0.0738*** (0.0210) 0.0631* (0.0322)
Migrant × ≥ 6 months 0.0478** (0.0221) 0.0485** (0.0224) 0.0467** (0.0224) 0.0606* (0.0330)
N 7,569 7,569 3,010 3,010
Household FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Shifts in decision-making power as son's migration status changes

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A: All categories
Husband alone −0.042*** (0.010) −0.038*** (0.010) −0.039*** (0.009) −0.019 (0.016)
Husband and wife jointly 0.010 (0.012) 0.008 (0.012) 0.010 (0.012) 0.012 (0.021)
Wife alone 0.011 (0.008) 0.011 (0.008) 0.012 (0.008) 0.004 (0.015)
N 7,569 7,569 4,025 4,025
Panel B: Disaggregated by category
Temptation goods
Husband alone 0.011 (0.011) 0.008 (0.011) 0.006 (0.011) 0.029 (0.022)
Husband and wife jointly 0.004 (0.011) 0.005 (0.011) 0.002 (0.011) −0.008 (0.021)
Wife alone 0.010 (0.007) 0.010 (0.007) 0.009 (0.008) 0.004 (0.015)
N 7,524 7,524 4,009 4,009
Health care
Husband alone 0.001 (0.013) 0.001 (0.013) −0.004 (0.012) −0.017 (0.018)
Husband and wife jointly 0.023 (0.017) 0.020 (0.017) 0.023 (0.018) 0.040 (0.031)
Wife alone 0.012 (0.010) 0.012 (0.010) 0.014 (0.010) 0 (0.017)
N 7,564 7,564 4,020 4,020
Ceremonies or celebrations
Husband alone 0.001 (0.012) 0.001 (0.012) −0.004 (0.012) −0.007 (0.018)
Husband and wife jointly 0.035** (0.016) 0.031* (0.016) 0.032* (0.017) 0.044 (0.027)
Wife alone 0.015 (0.013) 0.015 (0.013) 0.016 (0.013) −0.002 (0.020)
N 7,537 7,537 4,013 4,013
Child education
Husband alone −0.003 (0.014) −0.005 (0.014) −0.009 (0.014) −0.032 (0.019)
Husband and wife jointly −0.043** (0.020) −0.045** (0.020) −0.035* (0.020) −0.035 (0.035)
Wife alone 0.010 (0.012) 0.012 (0.013) 0.016 (0.013) 0.009 (0.023)
N 7,415 7,415 3,897 3,897
Child clothing
Husband alone 0.004 (0.013) 0.002 (0.013) −0.004 (0.012) −0.023 (0.018)
Husband and wife jointly −0.007 (0.020) −0.009 (0.020) 0.001 (0.020) 0.007 (0.032)
Wife alone 0.009 (0.013) 0.012 (0.013) 0.012 (0.013) 0 (0.024)
N 7,469 7,469 3,938 3,938
Adult women clothing
Husband alone 0.008 (0.014) 0.007 (0.014) 0.001 (0.013) −0.015 (0.020)
Husband and wife jointly 0.013 (0.020) 0.011 (0.020) 0.011 (0.019) −0.010 (0.038)
Wife alone 0.008 (0.018) 0.007 (0.018) 0.012 (0.018) 0.022 (0.025)
N 7,553 7,553 4,013 4,013
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Shifts in expenditures (asinh) as the husband's migrant status changes – only considering migration spells outside of Nepal and lasting >6 months

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Temptation goods −1.325*** (0.180) −1.427*** (0.179) −1.482*** (0.170) −1.589*** (0.328)
N 7,417 7,417 2,144 2,144
Health care −0.051 (0.194) −0.089 (0.217) −0.090 (0.229) 0.035 (0.354)
N 7,145 7,145 2,083 2,083
Ceremonies or celebrations 0.135 (0.111) 0.124 (0.114) 0.137 (0.109) −0.179 (0.225)
N 7,407 7,407 2,155 2,155
Child education 0.226** (0.112) 0.312*** (0.114) 0.285** (0.111) −0.078 (0.182)
N 7,339 7,339 2,155 2,155
Child clothing 0.338*** (0.108) 0.360*** (0.109) 0.320*** (0.107) 0.204 (0.175)
N 7,349 7,349 2,161 2,161
Adult women clothing 0.043 (0.073) 0.069 (0.077) 0.064 (0.082) 0.165 (0.148)
N 7,548 7,548 2,191 2,191
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Dynamic shifts in decision-making power between husband and wife: first-difference approach with the dummy Gone

α1: returned α2: left α3: gone P-value: |α1| = |α2| N
Panel A: Δ all categories
Husband alone 0.019 (0.032) −0.029 (0.038) −0.005 (0.039) 0.879 3,580
Husband and wife jointly 0.123*** (0.045) −0.063 (0.042) −0.042 (0.050) 0.440 3,580
Wife alone −0.109*** (0.030) 0.088** (0.037) 0.004 (0.039) 0.730 3,580
Panel B: Δ disaggregated by category
Δ Temptation goods
Husband alone 0.081*** (0.029) −0.022 (0.047) 0.005 (0.040) 0.344 3,566
Husband and wife jointly 0.017 (0.036) −0.060* (0.036) −0.053 (0.048) 0.523 3,566
Wife alone −0.028 (0.022) −0.000 (0.023) −0.025 (0.028) 0.136 3,566
Δ Health care
Husband alone 0.001 (0.041) −0.027 (0.047) −0.006 (0.049) 0.741 3,579
Husband and wife jointly 0.159** (0.062) −0.072 (0.065) −0.066 (0.064) 0.436 3,579
Wife alone −0.103** (0.040) 0.170*** (0.053) 0.090 (0.055) 0.418 3,579
Δ Ceremonies
Husband alone 0.035 (0.041) −0.005 (0.051) 0.026 (0.054) 0.724 3,571
Husband and wife jointly 0.182*** (0.059) −0.034 (0.064) 0.042 (0.065) 0.188 3,571
Wife alone −0.137*** (0.039) 0.095* (0.056) −0.019 (0.060) 0.630 3,571
Δ Child education
Husband alone −0.019 (0.049) −0.075 (0.055) −0.021 (0.057) 0.254 3,456
Husband and wife jointly 0.105 (0.064) −0.091 (0.073) −0.095 (0.077) 0.909 3,456
Wife alone −0.168*** (0.055) 0.084 (0.053) −0.002 (0.062) 0.390 3,456
Δ Child clothing
Husband alone 0.004 (0.052) −0.048 (0.056) −0.012 (0.059) 0.660 3,495
Husband and wife jointly 0.104 (0.072) −0.139** (0.066) −0.125* (0.074) 0.766 3,495
Wife alone −0.150** (0.060) 0.129** (0.054) 0.037 (0.061) 0.835 3,495
Δ Adult women clothing
Husband alone 0.003 (0.058) −0.005 (0.056) −0.005 (0.072) 0.984 3,572
Husband and wife jointly 0.247*** (0.075) −0.103 (0.071) −0.001 (0.077) 0.262 3,572
Wife alone −0.195*** (0.060) 0.099 (0.062) −0.002 (0.075) 0.382 3,572

Decision-making outcomes by migrant status

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Overall Ever migrate Never migrate P-value (2) – (3)
Panel A: All categories
Husband alone 0.136 0.105 0.156 0.000***
[0.209] [0.187] [0.220]
Husband and wife jointly 0.338 0.304 0.361 0.000***
[0.313] [0.313] [0.310]
Wife alone 0.108 0.177 0.062 0.000***
[0.208] [0.256] [0.152]
Panel B: Disaggregated by category
Temptation goods
Husband alone 0.192 0.157 0.214 0.000***
[0.293] [0.274] [0.302]
Husband and wife jointly 0.107 0.080 0.125 0.000***
[0.254] [0.224] [0.270]
Wife alone 0.042 0.044 0.040 0.268
[0.146] [0.151] [0.143]
Health care
Husband alone 0.120 0.087 0.141 0.000***
[0.274] [0.234] [0.296]
Husband and wife jointly 0.418 0.364 0.454 0.000***
[0.437] [0.434] [0.435]
Wife alone 0.110 0.193 0.056 0.000***
[0.277] [0.348] [0.199]
Ceremonies or celebrations
Husband alone 0.124 0.093 0.144 0.000***
[0.288] [0.252] [0.308]
Husband and wife jointly 0.479 0.432 0.510 0.000***
[0.438] [0.438] [0.435]
Wife alone 0.137 0.211 0.089 0.000***
[0.300] [0.359] [0.241]
Child education
Husband alone 0.131 0.097 0.154 0.000***
[0.325] [0.283] [0.348]
Husband and wife jointly 0.387 0.391 0.384 0.528
[0.474] [0.475] [0.474]
Wife alone 0.128 0.245 0.049 0.000***
[0.324] [0.419] [0.206]
Child clothing
Husband alone 0.124 0.096 0.144 0.000***
[0.311] [0.278] [0.330]
Husband and wife jointly 0.385 0.381 0.387 0.556
[0.466] [0.467] [0.465]
Wife alone 0.140 0.262 0.058 0.000***
[0.331] [0.424] [0.216]
Adult women clothing
Husband alone 0.130 0.100 0.149 0.000***
[0.336] [0.301] [0.356]
Husband and wife jointly 0.459 0.382 0.510 0.000***
[0.498] [0.486] [0.500]
Wife alone 0.236 0.342 0.166 0.000***
[0.424] [0.474] [0.372]
N 7,572 3,013 4,559 7,572

Shifts in decision-making power as the husband's migrant status changes

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A: all categories
Husband alone −0.042*** (0.010) −0.038*** (0.010) −0.039*** (0.009) −0.019 (0.016)
Husband and wife jointly −0.092*** (0.014) −0.112*** (0.016) −0.104*** (0.016) −0.125*** (0.026)
Wife alone 0.101*** (0.011) 0.107*** (0.013) 0.110*** (0.014) 0.108*** (0.019)
N 7,569 7,569 3,010 3,010
Panel B: Disaggregated by category
Temptation goods
Husband alone −0.065*** (0.014) −0.064*** (0.016) −0.067*** (0.016) −0.065** (0.027)
Husband and wife jointly −0.037*** (0.009) −0.052*** (0.011) −0.044*** (0.012) −0.055*** (0.018)
Wife alone 0.017*** (0.005) 0.018*** (0.005) 0.016*** (0.006) 0.009 (0.011)
N 7,524 7,524 2,993 2,993
Health care
Husband alone −0.038*** (0.013) −0.035** (0.014) −0.031** (0.013) −0.005 (0.022)
Husband and wife jointly −0.131*** (0.018) −0.161*** (0.020) −0.147*** (0.022) −0.161*** (0.040)
Wife alone 0.140*** (0.017) 0.160*** (0.020) 0.155*** (0.022) 0.154*** (0.031)
N 7,564 7,564 3,009 3,009
Ceremonies or celebrations
Husband alone −0.037*** (0.012) −0.031** (0.012) −0.030** (0.012) −0 (0.023)
Husband and wife jointly −0.104*** (0.019) −0.126*** (0.021) −0.114*** (0.022) −0.130*** (0.037)
Wife alone 0.119*** (0.014) 0.127*** (0.017) 0.127*** (0.018) 0.118*** (0.028)
N 7,537 7,537 2,999 2,999
Child education
Husband alone −0.043*** (0.016) −0.036** (0.015) −0.038*** (0.015) −0.016 (0.024)
Husband and wife jointly −0.091*** (0.023) −0.099*** (0.024) −0.108*** (0.027) −0.137*** (0.045)
Wife alone 0.135*** (0.018) 0.139*** (0.022) 0.153*** (0.023) 0.147*** (0.031)
N 7,415 7,415 2,978 2,978
Child clothing
Husband alone −0.043*** (0.014) −0.038*** (0.014) −0.037*** (0.014) −0.013 (0.023)
Husband and wife jointly −0.106*** (0.023) −0.114*** (0.026) −0.127*** (0.027) −0.181*** (0.041)
Wife alone 0.153*** (0.018) 0.159*** (0.023) 0.172*** (0.023) 0.171*** (0.033)
N 7,469 7,469 2,995 2,995
Adult women clothing
Husband alone −0.034** (0.014) −0.023 (0.015) −0.031** (0.015) −0.002 (0.025)
Husband and wife jointly −0.147*** (0.023) −0.177*** (0.025) −0.164*** (0.026) −0.202*** (0.049)
Wife alone 0.150*** (0.018) 0.167*** (0.022) 0.167*** (0.023) 0.167*** (0.040)
N 7,553 7,553 3,008 3,008
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes

Changes in expenditures, income, and financial behavior as the husband's migrant status changes – top-coded at the 95th percentile

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Panel A: expenditures
Temptation goods −126.360*** (38.072) −137.050*** (38.904) −117.563*** (39.783) −103.698 (63.795)
N 7,417 7,417 2,940 2,940
Health care −75.066 (133.753) −3.897 (121.987) −36.762 (119.550) 154.302 (255.985)
N 7,145 7,145 2,850 2,850
Ceremonies or celebrations −91.457 (92.147) −121.699 (94.857) −98.522 (116.511) −163.506 (172.497)
N 7,407 7,407 2,948 2,948
Children's education 47.410 (37.658) 58.955 (41.153) 29.104 (44.499) −70.578 (63.297)
N 7,339 7,339 2,954 2,954
Children's clothing 47.525*** (16.438) 46.156*** (16.379) 48.749*** (17.297) 22.596 (34.274)
N 7,349 7,349 2,965 2,965
Adult women's clothing −7.454 (13.565) −3.645 (14.699) 1.919 (14.565) 13.527 (27.480)
N 7,548 7,548 3,005 3,005
Panel B: income and financial behavior
Annual income 42,899.597*** (7,854.542) 40,695.726*** (8,243.078) 39,730.933*** (10,362.565) 48,730.244***(15,369.961)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Savings deposited in past month 11.375 (23.572) 18.660 (28.278) 10.282 (33.734) −5.363 (56.177)
N 7,524 7,524 2,996 2,996
Currently borrowing 1,178.234 (3,369.408) 2,149.937 (3,874.228) 201.140 (4,213.134) −2,007.624 (8,311.890)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Currently lending 53.964 (667.219) 536.425 (749.997) 120.092 (909.763) −1,694.717 (1,763.982)
N 7,572 7,572 3,013 3,013
Household and year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Controls No Yes Yes Yes
Limited sample No No Yes Yes
HH-specific time trends No No No Yes
eISSN:
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